Biological - STRESS

Biological - STRESS

1. The body's reaction to stress

   • ACUTE STRESS(SAM pathway)- hypothalamus (controls most of the bodies hormone systems) alerts the sympathetic branch of the ANS, this sends a message to the adrenal meldulla (middle of the adrenal gland locatied ust above the kidneys) which releases adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream. These hormones activate our internal organs preparing us for 'fight or flight' by: increased heartrate, ceasing digestion and sweating.
     • Any immediate life threatening short term stress (perceived as). After SAM pathway has been activated for a feew minutes the Parasympathetic branch is activated.
   • CHRONIC STRESS(HPA axis)- hypothalamus alerts the pituitary gland which releases the hormone ACTH(adreno-cortico-trophic-hormone) which stimulates the adrenal cortex (the outside of the adrenal gland located just above the kidneys) to release the hormone cortisol. This helps increase the bodies energy level: it elevates the blood sugar and maintains a steady supply of fuel.
     • Any ongoing or long term situations for example prolonged illness, exams etc.
   • A person's response to stress is also influenced by INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. We may appraise a situation differently(our ability to cope).
     • Primary appraisal - view the demands
     • Secondary appraisal - view our ability to cope

2. Stress and the body

   • Immune system- 1.Stops antigens from entering the body(toxins etc), 2.If they do enter, it eliminates them on entry before they can reproduce, 3.If they do reproduce then it will eliminate it complete;y to prevent it from harming.
     • Natural immunity- based on cells called NK cells, this is the immune system's 'first line of defence' as it works within minutes.
     • Specific immunity- based on cells called lymphocytes, specific antibodies target and destroy specific antigens. These are produce in the bone marrow.
   • The immune system
     • KIECOLT & GLASER ET AL (1984) investigated whether short term stressors such as exams had an effect on the immune system. A natural experiment involving 75 medical students. Blood samples were taken one month before (low stress) and once during exams (high stress). Immune system functioning was assessed bu measuring NK cell activity in the blood samples. Pts also completed a questionnaire to measure other life stressors they were experiencing.
       • NK cell activity was significantly reduced in the second blood sample compared to the sample taken one month before. This suggests that short-term predictable stressors reduce the immune system functioning, increasing vulnerability to illness. K&G found that students who also reported the highest levels of lonliness had the lowest NK cell activity.
       • X sample bias
       • X correlational
       • biological measures so is scientific
   • The rate at which wounds heal
     • MARUCHA ET AL(1998) investigated the effect of short term stressors such as exams on the rate of wounds healing. Marucha inflicted a 'punch biopsy' in the mouth of students either during the summer holidays or three days before exams. The wounds given before the exam took 40% longer to heal than the wounds during the holidays. This shows that short term stressors have an effect on the rate at which wounds heal.
       • X Sample issues
       • X Correlational
       • Potential design problems (independent measures)
   • BRADY(1958)- monkeys received electric foot shocks that were signalled by a preceding tone, monkeys were in pairs with one as the 'executive monkey' who was able to press a lever and avoid the shocks, the other monkey did not have a lever but received all of the same shocks as the executive monkey. After 23 days the executive monkeys began to die of gastric ulceration. The 'yoked' monkeys remained healthy.
     • The shocks themselves were not severely stressful as the yoked monkeys showed little gastric ulceration, the critical factor was the stress associated with trying to avoid the shocks. Having control was the stressful element in this study.
     • X correlational
     • X study used monkeys
     • Biological methods of data analysis
     • X ethical issues

3. Life changes

   • Holmes & Rahe(1967) examined 5000 patient records, from this they made a list of 43 life events that seemed to precede illness. Using this they developed the SRRS, 394 pts were asked to rate the 43 events in terms of the amount of stress it produces. This was used to give each event a LIFE CHANGE UNIT. The higher the LCU, the more stress the event arguably causes.
   • Holmes & Rahe (1970) gave a military version of the SRRS to 2700 US navy men before their tour of duty, noting all the life events experienced over the previous six months. An illness score was calculated on the basis of the number, type and severity of any illnesses recorded during the tour of duty (roughly 7 months)
     • They found a positive correlation of 0.118 (those who scored low on SRE also had low levels of illness during tour. From this they concluded that it is tress from change rather than the negativity of change that causes illness.
     • X correlational
     • X does not take into account individual differences
     • X bias sample
     • X ethical issues (likely to be no informed consent or right to withdraw)
     • Retrospective data & based on opinion
     • One criticism with the experiment is that it only looks at major life changes. However, these events are rare. LAZARUS developed the 'hassles scale'. This is a 117 item questionnaire, Lazarus also draws attention to 'uplifts', (the positive events that counteract daily hassles).
       • DELONGIS ET AL(1982) pts aged 4 and over were given Lazarus' daily hassles and uplifts scale, a health questionnaire and Holmes and Rahe's SRRS. DeLongis found that the illnesses were more strongly correlated with daily hassles than with major life events. Also that 'uplifts' had no impact on health.
         • X sample bias
         • X correlational
         • X long winded for pts

4. Stress in everyday life

   • Workplace Stress
     • MARMOT ET AL(1997) gave a questionnaire about workload, job control and amount of social support(job roles were also assessed bychecking job roles/specification with personnel management) to 7372 civil servants in London, they were also examined for signs of CVD. Five years later the pts were checked again for CVD and Marmot found that it was actually those with low job control that were more affected than those with a high work load.
       • X Retrospective and relying on interpretation of work stress
       • X individual differences
       • X sample issues
   • ROSENMAN ET AL(1976) 3454 middle aged men from the west coast of the USA were categorised as either type A or type B base on structured interviews and questionnaires. Researchers recorded any obvious signs of type A behaviour (e.g. excessive finger tapping during the interview). The health of the pts was then monitored for the next 8.5 years.
     • 60% of heart attacks that occurred among the pts were Type A personalities. This was a significant effect even when lifestyle risks such as smoking and obesity were controlled.
     • X sample not representative (gender/age/culture)
     • X correlational
     • SUPPORTING EVIDENCE-Friedman&Rosenman found that in a sample of 3000 people, 70% of those who developed coronary heart disease were type A personalities. This supports the relationship.....(increased validity)
   • KOBASA hardiness training provides a 'buffering effect' against stress and means hardy individuals will cope better with the stress. H people see:
     • KOBASA(1979) studied 800 American businessman assessing stress using H&R(SRRS), Approximately 150 of the pts were classified as high stress, Some of these had a low illness record whereas some had a high record, this suggests that something else was a modifying the effects of stress because individuals experiencing the same stress levels had different illness levels. Kobasa proposed that a hardy personality type encourages resilience. The individuals in the high stress/low illness group scored high on all 3 characteristics of the hardy personality, whereas the high stress/high illness scored lower on these variables.

5. Treatments of stress management

   • Psychological
     • MICHENBAUM- Stress Inoculation Therapy (SIT)is a cognitive behavioural therapy, It involves a person identifying the causes of stress and the irrational thoughts which accompany these before applying SIT skills to help cope with the demands of the situation.
       • 1.CONCEPTUALISATION involves the client and therapist building a relationship, the client is taught about the nature and impact of stress and how to view perceived threats as problems to be solved(by breaking them down into specific easy parts). This allows the client to think differently about their problem.
         • 2.SKILLS ACQUISITION PHASE, coping skills(specific to client's problem)are taught and practised in the clinic and then gradually rehearsed into real life. Skills include:positive thinking, relaxation, social skills, attention diversion, social support systems, and time management. Client is also taught to use self coping statements. Skills are both cognitive(they encourage the client to think differently) and behavioural(involves learning new more adaptive behaviours.
           • 3.APPLICATION- clients are given opportunities to apply their new coping skills in different situations which become increasingly stressful. Various techniques may be used: imagery(imagining how to deal with stressful situations), modelling(watching someone else cope then copy them), role playing(act out scenes involving stressors). Clients may even be asked to help train others. Booster sessions are offered later on.
       • MICHENBAUM(1977)compared SIT to others(systematic desensitisation) on snake phobics.....&helped clients better deal with different future stressful events.
       • Effective in the long term(root cause)
       • X takes time
       • SHEEHY&HORAN(2004) SIT to 1st year law students four weekly sessions of 90 minutes. Compared to a control group, those with SIT showed much lower levels of stress during examinations and more than half achieved grades higher than predicted. Shows SIT effective&can lead to major improvements in a person's task performance.
       • X not effective for everyone
     • Hardiness Training(KOBASA) involves teaching a person to become more 'hardy'.
       • RELIVING STRESS- the client relives stress encounters and is helped to analyse these situations and respond to them. This gives them an insight into their current coping strategies and how they might be more effective than they thought.
         • FOCUSING- the client is taught how to recognise the biological signs of stress, such as muscle tension and increased heart rate, and also to identify the sources of stress.
           • SELF IMPROVEMENT- the insights gained can now be used to move forward and learn new techniques of dealing with stress. In particular the client is taught to focus on seeing stressors as challenges that they can take control of,rather than problems that they must give into.
       • PRACTICAL application in sport- increasing performance levels&lower stress.
       • X long time to make a change
       • Helps people develop their personality & professional nature, e.g helping students at Utah Valley master the many stressors they encounter=better mental health and education (from Hardiness Institute website)
   • Physiological
     • Benzodiazepines treat stress and anxiety by increasing the activity of the neurotransmitter 'Gaba'. Gaba reduces the activity of other NT's like serotonin. Lower levels of serotonin are associated with relaxation/sleepiness/reduced anxiety.
       • KAHN ETAL(1986) followed nearly 250 patients over eight weeks and found that BZ's were significantly superior to a placebo. A meta-analysis (Hidalgo) of studies focusing on the treatment of social anxiety found that BZ's were more effective at reducing this anxiety than other drugs.
     • Beta-blockers enter the blood stream through the gastro intestinal tract and prevent adrenaline from attaching to the receptors on the heart's cells. Heart rate stays normal, fight or flight reactions do not occur.
       • LOCKWOOD(1989) found that Beta-blockers can significantly reduce the symptoms of anxiety that can hinder musicians, Studied over 2000 musicians and found that 27% took beta-blockers, they suggested that they felt better and that it improved their performances.
     • EASY to use with immediate effects
     • X many have negative side effects (e.g. BZ's=withdrawel symptoms when stopped taking.
     • X ethical issues
     • X unethical- addictive
     • X treat effects (symptoms) but not root cause