Research methods

Epistemology

Social constructionism

- Meaning created between members of society

- World shaped by how we look at it

Theoretical Framework

Symbolic Interactionism

- Meaning relies on context

- What does it mean to us

- What does it mean to others

Hermeneutics

- Like written Chinese whispers

- Each person tells it different

- Each person believes its true

Methodology

- Plan for organising tools we use

(Descriptive) Phenomenology

- The world is made up of objects we can describe

- Ask participants to describe their experiences

Phenomenology

- Understanding human experience​​​​​​

Interpretive phenomenology

- We always influence the process (cannot bracket out)

- We interpret everything differently

- Double hermeneutic: we interpret, interpretations

- What meaning do participants give to experiences

Data Sources

Non-reactive: Any expression of human experience or meaning (anything!)

Interactive: Most commonly; focus groups and interviews

Purposive Sampling

- Homogenous (little variation in demographics)

- Even 1 is enough, though 10-15 is ideal.

- Never experience saturation

- Do not bracket ourselves out

- Use journals and note taking to understand influencing factors

- Triangulation: check interpretations against journal

Sample Size

Reflexivity

Data Analysis

- How we analyse the results

Thematic Analysis

- Immersion in the data

- Find overarching themes common through research

- Themes summarise main findings and what was said in interview

Interpretive Phenomenology Analysis

- Immersion in the data

- Find overarching themes common through research

- Themes summarise main findings and what was said in interview

Analysis Model

TA/IPA

1) Read transcripts (takes long time)

2) Identify you biases and record them (during step 1)

3) Underline significant concepts, sentences and statements

4) Write a summary of the content in each section (your analysis of what they said)

5) Begin reducing the data (coding; similarities) (categorise the codes) (categories into themes (4-5 with 3-4 sub-themes)

6) Slot significant statements under codes

7) group common codes together

8) Write a summary statement

Structured Interviewing

- each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the same orde

Sampling

- finding participants: Snowballing, flyers, newspapers etc

- Vulnerable populations: minorities etc

- Inducements: rewards, tea and cake

- Building rapport important as you can get better answers

Grounded Theory

- Good when there is not a great understanding in the area

- Test first, theorise later

- Data driven appraoch

- Bottom up

- Can bracket

- Should journal

- Theory of human behaviour

- Analyse data while collecting

Discursive Psychology

- Measuring attitudes toward something

- studies language in use and words we use to describe things

- words mean different things and chance through time, place and situation

- Way of examining people in their context

Ethnography

- Cultural description, participant observation

- Ethical concerns (overt vs covert) (reaching participants(vulnerable) and safety)

- Immerse yourself in the participants & develop relationships

Coding

- Open coding: Immersion into data (what is happening here)

- Axial coding: Impose structure; pull it apart and find important parts

- Selective coding: Relationships and links between codes (put it all back together again)

- Do not take to long or you may become unimmersed

Semi-Structured Interviewing

- Might not ask all participants the same questions or in same order but will stay on same topic

Unstructured Interviewing

- Conversational interviewing

- No questions but have general topic areas to stay focussed

Focus Groups

- A focus group is a small, but demographically diverse group of people that are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes

- Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where participants are free to talk with other group members

- Actual number not known for sure, can only be guessed

- Can reach saturation (when no new data arises)

- Theoretical sampling: as new data emerges we decide who we collect from

We are influential as researchers and have power. We must therefore be highly reflexive and take care in with language/word use.

Conversation Analysis

- Record EVERYTHING even umms and ahhs

- How does each utterance function for speakers

- Your own experiences with the topic influence how you ask it ; acknowledge your bias (what do i know and how do i know it?)

- May need maps, photos, news papers etc

- Take notes, video or audio record

- Need to phsycially and emotionally disengage afterward

- can observe without interaction

-Use personal contacts/relationships

- Take your time

- Hawthorne effect (being watched)

- Identify gatekeepers/spokespersons

- informants

- identify possible misrepresentations/misidentifications (intentional or accidental)

Ethnographical analysis

- Typologies: Systematic method for classifying similar events

- Sociograms: Assess groups, e.g. hierachies, friendships, cliques (affinity and dislike)

Quota Sampling

- Mainly used for narrrative research as it saves time

- Not often in qual

Convenience sampling

- Anyone who wants to participant

- happen to be in the area

Schedule

Do: start broad and easy and narrow it down to more specific

Don't: assume, use double negatives, use jargon, be bias or use leading questions. Also avoid emotional words/be sensitive.

Probe: Silence is ok, echo them but not to often. Can you tell me more.....

Discourse analysis

- Do not clean text up, have it word for word

- look for parrerns and formulate hypothesis

- Do not discount any ideas or thoughts just because they are different

Computer progams

- do not immerse yourself enough

- finds what you want it to nothing else

Considerations

- member checking: Am i telling the story the way they expect

- Co-analysis: blind (let them start from scratch) or already coded (look at first persons coding)

- Journal: Incorporate journal, use to explain attitudes/biases. Keep it for 5 years or as long as you keep transcripts

Ethics

Rigour

Informed Consent

- Information letter

- Consent form

- Must know what they are consenting to

- Capacity to consent

Confidentiality

- Use codes (pseudonyms) instead of names

- Researcher knows identity but does not share

- How will results be reported

Anonymity

- Even researcher does not know identity (e.g. online survey)

Privacy

- Do not push them to answer questions they do not want to

(care when using administrative records)

Incentives

- Coffee, tea and cake is common

- Large incentives become unethical as they may encourage risk taking behaviour

Data

- where will data be stored (min 5 year storage)

- Who has access

- Destruction of data? When, how and who.

Withdrawal

- Must have right to withdraw

- Can give a time frame and they cannot withdraw afterwards

Risk

- If you show you have considered the risks then data will be more rich and meaningful

Deception

- Intentionally providing false or misleading information

- Disclosure: Only tell them necessary details (avoid Hawthorne effect)

- Debriefing: Disclose all details and let the ask questions (afterward)

Theoretical

- Congruence between epistemology, theoretical framework, methodology and methods

Methodological

- Using the appropriate methods

- Triangulation

- Decribe sampling procedure

- Leave no loose ends

Interpretative

- How you analyse the data will determine how credible it is

- Never leave out stories (confirm and disconfirm)

Evaluative

- Ethical (and has approval)

- Must add to the body of knowledge

- Procedures in place to avoid ethical problems

How

- Prolonged engagement: start early, build trust and understand perspectives

- Reflexivity: Own transparency

- Thick description: How you did everything, as much detail as posisble

- Audit trail: Record everything you do

- Interpretation: No less then 4 or 5 themese